In order to effectively and successfully integrate new technologies into the classroom, the role of the teacher will change from provider of knowledge to facilitator, organiser, instructor, diagnostician and partner (Nir-Gal and Klein, 2004). This may involve pedagogical change by individual teachers depending on their current practices. A social constructivist philosophy of learning most effectively underpins successful infusion of technology into all aspects of the curriculum. From the perspective of brain development, researcher Jane Healy believes that for optimal use of technology teachers ‘must be comfortable with a constructivist or project-based, problem-solving approach to learning’ (Herring, 2001). She also cautions as to negative impacts of inappropriate technology use.
Constructivism refers to student-centred learning in which the learner actively interacts with new ideas and experiences, by discussion and reflection, and makes connections to prior understandings, in order to construct new knowledge for themselves. The ‘social’ aspect acknowledges the important contribution that communication plays in this process as ‘students share ideas, grapple with the meaning of new information, and defend divergent thinking’ (Judson, 2006). Thus knowledge is best constructed in collaborative social situations in conjunction with others. This model is currently considered by many to be the most effective for all student learning, not just for considering the integration of technology. Based on the theories of Vygotsky, the ‘shared problem-solving activity of child and adult’ is considered ‘the primary framework for cognitive development’ (Rivera et al., 2002).
New technologies have much to offer this learning scenario. From this perspective students learn through the use of technology. Technology is a ‘tool-for-teaching’ not a ‘tool-to-be-taught’ (Rivera et al., 2002). Through technological resources a vast array of information and experience can be accessed by the student promoting autonomy and independence and enabling an enquiry based, self-directed approach to learning. Laurillard (2007) refers to integration of technology in this way as ‘technology-enhanced learning’ (TEL).
Adopting and applying social constructivism in the classroom necessitates particular management structures designed to promote student controlled, collaborative learning. The character of the classroom climate is also important in facilitating successful student-centred learning. Consistent expectations and classroom-community values such as ‘helping and not interfering with the work of others, caring and generosity, high standards, mutual respect, and cleaning up’ are crucial (Rivera et al., 2002).
After observing teachers who espoused a social constructivist philosophy in their classrooms during lessons involving technology integration, Judson (2006) concluded that many teachers do not effectively put their fundamental ethos into practice even though they believe that they do. Hence there is a need to look more closely at what is happening in classrooms and define what classroom practices are most aligned with social constructivist ideas and TEL.
The following The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy were developed by CREDE (Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence (CREDE), 2002) and are based on a social constructivist view.
I. Joint Productive Activity: Teachers and students producing together
II. Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum
III. Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
IV. Teaching Complex Thinking: Cognitive Challenge
V. Teaching Through Instructional Conversation’ (Rivera et al., 2002) from CREDE
By examining each of the five Standards, effective pedagogy for TEL can be explored.
Joint Productive Activity: Teachers and students producing together The sharing of joint activities provides a common basis of experience for meaningful dialogue and the opportunity for participants to collaborate and help one another. Technologies supply the foundation, stimulus and motivation for many projects that require group problem solving or foster joint productive activity, for example creation of a wiki or a multimedia presentation. Effective classroom organisation is important to make such projects successful.
During these activities teachers will
'design instructional activities requiring student collaboration to accomplish a joint product.
match the demands of the joint productive activity to the time available for accomplishing them.
arrange classroom seating to accommodate students' individual and group needs to communicate and work jointly.
participate with students in joint productive activity.
organize students in a variety of groupings, such as by friendship, mixed academic ability, language, project, or interests, to promote interaction.
plan with students how to work in groups and move from one activity to another, such as from large group introduction to small group activity, for clean-up, dismissal, and the like.
manage student and teacher access to materials and technology to facilitate joint productive activity.
monitor and supports student collaboration in positive ways' (Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence (CREDE), 2002).
Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum Language development is fostered by actively using language and ‘through purposeful, deliberate conversation between teacher and students’ (CREDE, 2002). The collaborative, problem solving character of projects that can be established using new technologies provides frequent opportunities for interaction among student and between students and teacher.
Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives Students today are digital natives and use technology in many aspects of their lives outside school (Culligan, 2006). Hence infusing technology into the curriculum is linking school with their outside lives. Communication technologies can also be used to forge stronger links between school and home for example through student portals on school websites, online school-home communication or digitally sharing student products.
Teaching Complex Thinking: Cognitive Challenge Using technologies gives the teacher the opportunity to provide a variety of levels of challenge and to match to student need. Higher order organisational thinking is fostered by the problem solving format and exploring how to use technological applications.
Teaching Through Instructional Conversation The teacher uses dialogue during interactions with students rather than lectures. Mediated learning in which such dialogue is used has been shown to increase cognitive development (Nir-Gal and Klein, 2004). The students are 'learning while doing' during a joint project incorporating technology. Questioning and the sharing of ideas and knowledge are encouraged. The autonomy in learning that can be developed as students problem solve using technologies results in the student having ‘something to say beyond the known answers in the head of the adult’. A role of the teacher is to guide the students in formulating this learning. To this end the teacher
'arranges the classroom to accommodate conversation between the teacher and a small group of students on a regular and frequent basis.
has a clear academic goal that guides conversation with students.
ensures that student talk occurs at higher rates than teacher talk.
guides conversation to include students' views, judgments, and rationales using text evidence and other substantive support.
ensures that all students are included in the conversation according to their preferences.
listens carefully to assess levels of students' understanding.
assists students’ learning throughout the conversation by questioning, restating, praising, encouraging, etc.
guides the students to prepare a product that indicates the Instructional Conversation's goal was achieved' (Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence (CREDE), 2002)
Conclusion
This discussion has developed a clearer picture of a classroom where Technology Enhanced Learning is happening based on Constructivist theories.
Herring, M. 2001, 'A conversation with Jane Healy', TechTrends, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 9-11.
Judson, E. 2006, 'How Teachers Integrate Technology and Their Beliefs About Learning: Is There a Connection?' Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 581-597.
Laurillard, D. 2007, 'Technology, pedagogy and education: concluding comments', Technology, Pedagogy and Education, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 357 - 360.
Nir-Gal, O. & Klein, P. S. 2004, 'Computers for Cognitive Development in Early Childhood—The Teacher’s Role in the Computer Learning Environment', Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, vol. 2004, no. 1, pp. 97-119.
Rivera, H., Galarza, S. L., Entz, S. & Tharp, R. G. 2002, 'Technology and Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education: Guidance from Cultural-Historical-Activity Theory and Developmentally Appropriate Instruction', Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, vol. 2002, no. 1, pp. 181-204.
In order to effectively and successfully integrate new technologies into the classroom, the role of the teacher will change from provider of knowledge to facilitator, organiser, instructor, diagnostician and partner (Nir-Gal and Klein, 2004). This may involve pedagogical change by individual teachers depending on their current practices. A social constructivist philosophy of learning most effectively underpins successful infusion of technology into all aspects of the curriculum. From the perspective of brain development, researcher Jane Healy believes that for optimal use of technology teachers ‘must be comfortable with a constructivist or project-based, problem-solving approach to learning’ (Herring, 2001). She also cautions as to negative impacts of inappropriate technology use.
Constructivism refers to student-centred learning in which the learner actively interacts with new ideas and experiences, by discussion and reflection, and makes connections to prior understandings, in order to construct new knowledge for themselves. The ‘social’ aspect acknowledges the important contribution that communication plays in this process as ‘students share ideas, grapple with the meaning of new information, and defend divergent thinking’ (Judson, 2006). Thus knowledge is best constructed in collaborative social situations in conjunction with others. This model is currently considered by many to be the most effective for all student learning, not just for considering the integration of technology. Based on the theories of Vygotsky, the ‘shared problem-solving activity of child and adult’ is considered ‘the primary framework for cognitive development’ (Rivera et al., 2002).
New technologies have much to offer this learning scenario. From this perspective students learn through the use of technology. Technology is a ‘tool-for-teaching’ not a ‘tool-to-be-taught’ (Rivera et al., 2002). Through technological resources a vast array of information and experience can be accessed by the student promoting autonomy and independence and enabling an enquiry based, self-directed approach to learning. Laurillard (2007) refers to integration of technology in this way as ‘technology-enhanced learning’ (TEL).
Adopting and applying social constructivism in the classroom necessitates particular management structures designed to promote student controlled, collaborative learning. The character of the classroom climate is also important in facilitating successful student-centred learning. Consistent expectations and classroom-community values such as ‘helping and not interfering with the work of others, caring and generosity, high standards, mutual respect, and cleaning up’ are crucial (Rivera et al., 2002).
After observing teachers who espoused a social constructivist philosophy in their classrooms during lessons involving technology integration, Judson (2006) concluded that many teachers do not effectively put their fundamental ethos into practice even though they believe that they do. Hence there is a need to look more closely at what is happening in classrooms and define what classroom practices are most aligned with social constructivist ideas and TEL.
The following The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy were developed by CREDE (Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence (CREDE), 2002) and are based on a social constructivist view.
I. Joint Productive Activity: Teachers and students producing together
II. Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum
III. Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
IV. Teaching Complex Thinking: Cognitive Challenge
V. Teaching Through Instructional Conversation’ (Rivera et al., 2002) from CREDE
By examining each of the five Standards, effective pedagogy for TEL can be explored.
Joint Productive Activity: Teachers and students producing together
The sharing of joint activities provides a common basis of experience for meaningful dialogue and the opportunity for participants to collaborate and help one another. Technologies supply the foundation, stimulus and motivation for many projects that require group problem solving or foster joint productive activity, for example creation of a wiki or a multimedia presentation. Effective classroom organisation is important to make such projects successful.
During these activities teachers will
Developing Language and Literacy Across the Curriculum
Language development is fostered by actively using language and ‘through purposeful, deliberate conversation between teacher and students’ (CREDE, 2002). The collaborative, problem solving character of projects that can be established using new technologies provides frequent opportunities for interaction among student and between students and teacher.
Making Meaning: Connecting School to Students’ Lives
Students today are digital natives and use technology in many aspects of their lives outside school (Culligan, 2006). Hence infusing technology into the curriculum is linking school with their outside lives. Communication technologies can also be used to forge stronger links between school and home for example through student portals on school websites, online school-home communication or digitally sharing student products.
Teaching Complex Thinking: Cognitive Challenge
Using technologies gives the teacher the opportunity to provide a variety of levels of challenge and to match to student need. Higher order organisational thinking is fostered by the problem solving format and exploring how to use technological applications.
Teaching Through Instructional Conversation
The teacher uses dialogue during interactions with students rather than lectures. Mediated learning in which such dialogue is used has been shown to increase cognitive development (Nir-Gal and Klein, 2004). The students are 'learning while doing' during a joint project incorporating technology. Questioning and the sharing of ideas and knowledge are encouraged. The autonomy in learning that can be developed as students problem solve using technologies results in the student having ‘something to say beyond the known answers in the head of the adult’. A role of the teacher is to guide the students in formulating this learning. To this end the teacher
Conclusion
This discussion has developed a clearer picture of a classroom where Technology Enhanced Learning is happening based on Constructivist theories.
References
Center for Research on Education Diversity and Excellence (CREDE) 2002, 'The Five Standards for Effective Pedagogy', <http://crede.berkeley.edu/standards/standards.html</span>> (6th May, 2008)
Culligan, M. 2006, 'Digital natives in the classroom', <http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/articles/digitalnatives//index.htm> (7 April, 2008)
Herring, M. 2001, 'A conversation with Jane Healy', TechTrends, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 9-11.
Judson, E. 2006, 'How Teachers Integrate Technology and Their Beliefs About Learning: Is There a Connection?' Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 581-597.
Laurillard, D. 2007, 'Technology, pedagogy and education: concluding comments', Technology, Pedagogy and Education, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 357 - 360.
Nir-Gal, O. & Klein, P. S. 2004, 'Computers for Cognitive Development in Early Childhood—The Teacher’s Role in the Computer Learning Environment', Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, vol. 2004, no. 1, pp. 97-119.
Rivera, H., Galarza, S. L., Entz, S. & Tharp, R. G. 2002, 'Technology and Pedagogy in Early Childhood Education: Guidance from Cultural-Historical-Activity Theory and Developmentally Appropriate Instruction', Information Technology in Childhood Education Annual, vol. 2002, no. 1, pp. 181-204.